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120-561: Gita means "song", Devi is the sanskrit word for "Goddess" ; the masculine form is deva . Accordingly, Devi Gita literally means "the song of the Goddess."' C Mackenzie Brown states that given the specific philosophical ideas and literary works with which the Devi Gita is familiar, "it is difficult to place the text earlier than the thirteenth century of the Common Era, and it may be as late as

240-462: A pustaka (book or script), a mala (rosary, garland), a water pot, and a musical instrument (lute or vina). The book she holds symbolizes the Vedas representing the universal, divine, eternal, and true knowledge as well as all forms of learning. A mālā of crystals, representing the power of meditation, and a pot of water represents the power to purify right from wrong. The musical instrument, typically

360-522: A veena , represents all creative arts and sciences, and her holding it symbolizes expressing knowledge that creates harmony. The Saraswatirahasya Upanishad of the Yajurveda contain ten verses called " dasa sloki " which are in praise of Sarasvati. In this Upanishad, she is extolled as You are the swan gliding over the pond of creative energy, waves and waves of creative forces emanating from your form! Radiant Goddess resplendent in white, dwells forever in

480-490: A 7th-century Vaishnava philosopher from the Andhra region which was further propounded by his disciple Srinivasacharya . According to this philosophy there are three categories of existence: Brahman, Self, and matter. Self and matter are different from Brahman in that they have attributes and capacities different from Brahman. Brahman exists independently, while Self and matter are dependent. Thus Self and matter have an existence that

600-460: A broad range of culturally valued goals and activities. Her connection with motherhood and female sexuality does not confine the feminine or exhaust their significance and activities in Hindu literature. She manifests in every activity, from water to mountains, from arts to inspiring warriors, from agriculture to dance. Parvati's numerous aspects, states Gross, reflect the Hindu belief that the feminine has

720-422: A contradiction, and argues that avidyā must either be non-different from Brahman or different from Brahman. If it is different from Brahman, the non-dualist position of Shankara is given up, but if it is non-different, it must exist ultimately as Brahman. Ramanuja claims that avidyā cannot be identical with Brahman because Brahman is pure knowledge, and avidyā is absence of knowledge. Ramanuja also argues that

840-462: A day over nine days. These are: Shailaputri , Brahmacharini , Chandraghanta , Kushmanda , Skandamata , Katyayani , Kaalratri , Mahagauri and Siddhidaatri . In the goddess-worshiping Shaktidharma denomination of Hinduism, the supreme deity Mahadevi manifests as the goddess Mahasaraswati in order to create, as the goddess Mahalaxmi in order to preserve, and as the goddess Mahakali ( Parvati ) in order to destroy. These three forms of

960-559: A distillation of its theories on epistemology, metaphysics, axiology and soteriology. For example, it states, From the triad of suffering, arises this inquiry into the means of preventing it. That is useless – if you say so, I say: No, because suffering is not absolute and final. – Verse 1 The Guṇas (qualities) respectively consist in pleasure, pain and dullness, are adapted to manifestation, activity and restraint; mutually domineer, rest on each other, produce each other, consort together, and are reciprocally present. – Verse 12 Goodness

1080-451: A part of the bhakti movement symbolising "yearning of human soul drawn to Krishna". In South India , she is considered as Bhumidevi . Though goddess Radha has more than thousand names but some of her common names used by devotees are – Radhika, Radhe, Radharani, Madhavi, Keshavi, Shyama, Kishori, Shreeji, Swamini ji (in Pushtimarg ) , Raseshwari, Vrindavaneshwari and Laadli ji. In

1200-464: A philosophical view that the Vedanta school disagreed with. Mīmāṃsā gave rise to the study of philology and the philosophy of language . While their deep analysis of language and linguistics influenced other schools, their views were not shared by others. Mīmāṃsākas considered the purpose and power of language was to clearly prescribe the proper, correct and right. In contrast, Vedantins extended

1320-552: A shakta Upanishad, Sita is extolled as the supreme goddess. The Upanishad identifies Sita with Prakrti (nature) which is constituted by "will" ichha , activity ( kriya ) and knowledge ( jnana ). The Upanishad also states that Sita emerged while furrowing, at the edge of the plough . She is extolled as one of the Panchakanya for her virtuous qualities; taking their names destroys all sins. Her life story and journeys with her husband Rama and brother-in-law Lakshmana are part of

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1440-608: A shakta or tantric poem, is dedicated to the Supreme Deity of the sect, Parvati who is considered much superior to Shiva. It celebrates Parvati and her feminine persona. It is an approach to the tantra through Parvati. In Shakti Tantra traditions, Devis are visualized with yantra and are a tool for spiritual journey for the tantric adept. The adepts ritually construct triangle yantras with proper use of visualization, movement, and mantra. The adepts believe, state John Stratton Hawley and Donna Marie Wulff, that "to establish such yantra

1560-521: A sixth way of knowing to its canon of reliable epistemology: anupalabdi (non-perception, negative/cognitive proof). The metaphysics of the Mīmāṃsā school consists of both atheistic and theistic doctrines, and the school showed little interest in systematic examination of the existence of God. Rather, it held that the Self (Atma) is an eternal, omnipresent, inherently active spiritual essence, then focussed on

1680-537: A theory of gunas (qualities, innate tendencies, psyche). Guna , it states, are of three types: Sattva being good, compassionate, illuminating, positive, and constructive; Rajas guna is one of activity, chaotic, passion, impulsive, potentially good or bad; and Tamas being the quality of darkness, ignorance, destructive, lethargic, negative. Everything, all life forms and human beings, state Samkhya scholars, have these three gunas , but in different proportions. The interplay of these gunas defines

1800-474: A universal range of activities, and her gender is not a limiting condition. In Hindu belief, Parvati is the recreative energy and power of Shiva, and she is the cause of a bond that connects all beings and a means of their spiritual release. Devi is portrayed as the ideal wife, mother, and householder in Indian legends. In Indian art, this vision of ideal couple is derived from Shiva and Parvati as being half of

1920-525: A valid and reliable source by Vaiśeṣikas were the Vedas. Vaiśeṣika metaphysical premises are founded on a form of atomism, that reality is composed of four substances (earth, water, air, and fire). Each of these four are of two types: atomic ( paramāṇu ) and composite. An atom is, according to Vaiśeṣika scholars, that which is indestructible ( anitya ), indivisible, and has a special kind of dimension, called "small" ( aṇu ). A composite, in this philosophy,

2040-404: A white lotus . She not only embodies knowledge but also the experience of the highest reality. Her iconography is typically in white themes from dress to flowers to swan – the color symbolizing Sattwa Guna or purity, discrimination for true knowledge, insight and wisdom. She is generally shown to have 8 to 10 arms, but sometimes just shows two. The four hands hold items with symbolic meaning –

2160-771: Is "the paradigm for rituals and ceremonies for the bride and groom in Hindu weddings ." Archaeological discoveries and ancient coins suggest the recognition and reverence for goddess Lakshmi in the Scytho-Parthian kingdom and throughout India by the 1st millennium BCE. She is also revered in other non-Hindu cultures of Asia, such as in Tibet.She is also worshipped in Buddhism. Lakshmi's iconography and statues have also been found in Hindu temples throughout Southeast Asia, estimated to be from second half of 1st millennium CE. In modern times, Lakshmi

2280-820: Is a realist āstika philosophy. The school's most significant contributions to Indian philosophy were its systematic development of the theory of logic , methodology, and its treatises on epistemology. The foundational text of the Nyāya school is the Nyāya Sūtras of the first millennium BCE. The text is credited to Aksapada Gautama and its composition is variously dated between the sixth and second centuries BCE. Nyāya epistemology accepts four out of six prāmaṇas as reliable means of gaining knowledge – pratyakṣa (perception), anumāṇa (inference), upamāṇa (comparison and analogy) and śabda (word, testimony of past or present reliable experts). In its metaphysics ,

2400-401: Is a "closet Buddhist," suggesting as evidence his positions that selfhood is illusory and an experience of it disappears after one attains enlightenment. However, Shankara does believe that there is an enduring reality that is ultimately real. He specifically rejects Buddhist propositions in his commentary on Brahma Sutras 2.2.18, 2.2.19, 2.2.20, 2.2.25, among others. Ramanuja (c. 1037–1137)

2520-524: Is also mentioned as the creative power of Shiva in Tripura Upanishad , Bahvricha Upanishad and Guhyakali Upanishad. Devi identifies herself in the Devi Upanishad as Brahman in her reply to the gods stating that she rules the world, blesses devotees with riches, that she is the supreme deity to whom all worship is to be offered and that she infuses Ātman in every soul. Devi asserts that she

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2640-415: Is an example of the later, where she subsumes all goddesses, becomes the ultimate goddess, and is sometimes just called Devi. Theological texts projected Mahadevi as ultimate reality in the universe as a "powerful, creative, active, transcendent female being." The Puranas and Tantra literature of India celebrates this idea, particularly between the 12th–16th century, and the best example of such texts being

2760-670: Is an offshoot of Nyaya concerned with atomism and naturalism ; Mimamsa (मीमांसा) is a school justifying ritual, faith, and religious obligations; and Vedanta (वेदान्त) contains various traditions that mostly embrace nondualism . Indian philosophy during the ancient and medieval periods also yielded philosophical systems that share concepts with the āstika traditions but reject the Vedas. These have been called nāstika (heterodox or non-orthodox) philosophies, and they include: Buddhism , Jainism , Charvaka , Ajivika , and others, which are thus broadly classified under Indian but not Hindu philosophy. Western scholars have debated

2880-593: Is astride on a tiger or lion. In the Skanda Purana , the Devi Bhagvata Purana and other Puranas , Devi assumes the form of a warrior-goddess and defeats an asura called Durgamasura , who assumes the form of a buffalo. In this aspect, she is known by the name Durga. In later Hindu literature, states Jansen, she is attributed the role of the "energy, power (shakti) of the Impersonal Absolute". In

3000-699: Is called pramana . It has been a key, much debated field of study in Hinduism since ancient times. Pramāṇa is a Hindu theory of knowledge and discusses the valid means by which human beings can gain accurate knowledge. The focus of pramāṇa is how correct knowledge can be acquired, how one knows, how one does not, and to what extent knowledge pertinent about someone or something can be acquired. Ancient and medieval Hindu texts identify six pramāṇas as correct means of accurate knowledge and truths: Each of these are further categorised in terms of conditionality, completeness, confidence and possibility of error, by

3120-461: Is called in Yoga Vasistha as Prakṛti or "all of nature". She is described in the text, state Shimkhanda and Herman, as the "one great body of cosmos", and same as Devis "Durga, Jaya and Siddha, Lakshmi, Gayatri, Saraswati, Parvati, Savitri". She is the power that supports the earth, with all its seas, islands, forests, deserts and mountains, asserts Yoga Vasistha . She is not to be confused with

3240-475: Is celebrated as " Radhashtami ". She is described by scriptures as the chief of gopis . She is also revered as the queen of Barsana , Vrindavan and her spiritual abode Goloka . Her love affair with Krishna was set in Vraja and its surrounding forests. It is said that " Krishna enchants the world but Radha can even enchant Krishna due to her selfless love and complete dedication towards him ". Radha has always been

3360-463: Is clothed in a tiger skin, rides a tiger, and wields a staff topped by a human skull. She destroys the asuras. Literature on goddess Kali recounts several such appearances, mostly in her terrifying but protective aspects. Kali appears as an independent deity, or like Parvati, viewed as the wife of Shiva . In this aspect, she represents the omnipotent Shakti of Shiva. She holds both the creative and destructive power of time. Kali, also called Kalaratri,

3480-422: Is considered to be alleviating and enlightening; foulness, urgent and persisting; darkness, heavy and enveloping. Like a lamp, they cooperate for a purpose by union of contraries. – Verse 13 There is a general cause, which is diffuse. It operates by means of the three qualities, by mixture, by modification; for different objects are diversified by influence of the several qualities respectively. – Verse 16 Since

3600-513: Is defined to be anything which is divisible into atoms. Whatever human beings perceive is composite, while atoms are invisible. The Vaiśeṣikas stated that size, form, truths and everything that human beings experience as a whole is a function of atoms, their number and their spatial arrangements, their guṇa (quality), karma (activity), sāmānya (commonness), viśeṣa (particularity) and amavāya (inherence, inseparable connectedness of everything). The Nyāya ( Sanskrit : न्याय) school

3720-537: Is determinate, unnameable and non-erratic. Inference is knowledge which is preceded by perception, and is of three kinds: a priori, a posteriori, and commonly seen. Comparison is the knowledge of a thing through its similarity to another thing previously well known. Word is the instructive assertion of a reliable person. It [knowledge] is of two kinds: that which is seen, and that which is not seen. Soul, body, senses, objects of senses, intellect, mind, activity, fault, transmigration, fruit, suffering and release – are

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3840-412: Is expressed with a different name, giving her over 1008 names in regional Hindu mythologies of India, including the popular names such as Gauri. Along with Lakshmi (goddess of wealth and prosperity) and Saraswati (goddess of knowledge and learning), she forms the trinity of Hindu goddesses . Parvati is married to Shiva – the destroyer, recycler, and regenerator of the universe and all life. She

3960-453: Is infinite existence, pure consciousness and eternal bliss. Then, the Goddess quickly emerges from the orb of light in her non-transcendental form as Bhuvaneshwari , the beautiful and gracious, four-armed, Mother of the Universe. Later in the Devi Gita, while describing her essential oneness with the universe, the goddess manifests her most terrifying, masculine form, Virat. The first chapter of

4080-539: Is interconnected oneness. This is the oldest and most widely acknowledged Vedantic school. The foundational texts of this school are the Brahma Sutras and the early Upanishads from the 1st millennium BCE. Its first great consolidator was the 8th century scholar Adi Shankara , who continued the line of thought of the Upanishadic teachers, and that of his teacher's teacher Gaudapada . He wrote extensive commentaries on

4200-400: Is not merely ignorance to Naiyayikas; it includes delusion. Correct knowledge is discovering and overcoming one's delusions, and understanding the true nature of the soul, self and reality. The Nyāya Sūtras begin: Perception, Inference, Comparison and Word – these are the means of right knowledge. Perception is that knowledge which arises from the contact of a sense with its object and which

4320-475: Is oneness in all of existence. They hold that dualities and misunderstanding of māyā as the spiritual reality that matters is caused by ignorance, and are the cause of sorrow, suffering. Jīvanmukti (liberation during life) can be achieved through Self-knowledge, the understanding that ātman within is same as ātman in another person and all of Brahman – the eternal, unchanging, entirety of cosmic principles and true reality. Some believe that Shankara

4440-547: Is primarily used to address the goddesses Lakshmi and Durga. In Buddhism, it is used to refer to several Mahayana Buddhist female deities, like Cundā. The worship of Devi-like deities dates back to period of Indus Valley civilisation . The Devīsūkta of the Rigveda (10.125.1 to 10.125.8) is among the most studied hymns declaring that the ultimate reality is a goddess: I have created all worlds at my will without being urged by any higher Being, and dwell within them. I permeate

4560-400: Is propounded in many Hindu texts such as the Devi Upanishad , which teaches that Shakti is essentially Brahman (ultimate metaphysical Reality) and that from her arises prakṛti (matter) and purusha (consciousness) and that she is bliss and non-bliss, the Vedas and what is different from it, the born and the unborn and all of the universe. Shakti is Parvati , Shiva ’s wife. She

4680-469: Is related to the Nyāya school but features differences in its epistemology , metaphysics and ontology. The epistemology of the Vaiśeṣika school, like Buddhism , accepted only two means to knowledge as reliable – perception and inference. The Vaiśeṣika school and Buddhism both consider their respective scriptures as indisputable and valid means to knowledge, the difference being that the scriptures held to be

4800-461: Is separate yet dependent. Further, Brahman is a controller, the Self is the enjoyer, and matter the thing enjoyed. Also, the highest object of worship is Krishna and his consort Radha , attended by thousands of gopis ; of the Vrindavan ; and devotion consists in self-surrender. Śuddhādvaita is the "purely non-dual" philosophy propounded by Vallabha Acharya (1479–1531). The founding philosopher

4920-462: Is spiritually unreal". The empirical reality is considered as always changing and therefore "transitory, incomplete, misleading and not what it appears to be". The concept of ātman is of one Atman, with the light of Atman reflected within each person as jivatman . Advaita Vedantins assert that ātman is same as Brahman, and this Brahman is reflected within each human being and all life, all living beings are spiritually interconnected, and there

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5040-400: Is that God takes on a personal role and is seen as a real eternal entity that governs and controls the universe. Like Vishishtadvaita Vedanta sub-school, Dvaita philosophy also embraced Vaishnavism , with the metaphysical concept of Brahman in the Vedas identified with Vishnu and the one and only Supreme Being . However, unlike Vishishtadvaita which envisions ultimate qualified nondualism,

5160-593: Is the Sanskrit word for ' goddess '; the masculine form is deva . Devi and deva mean 'heavenly, divine, anything of excellence', and are also gender-specific terms for a deity in Hinduism . The concept and reverence for goddesses appears in the Vedas , which were composed around the 2nd millennium BCE. However, they did not play a vital role in that era. Goddesses such as Durga , Kali , Lakshmi , Parvati , Radha , Saraswati and Sita have continued to be revered in

5280-542: Is the creator of earth and heaven and resides there. Her creation of the sky as father and the seas as the mother is reflected as the 'Inner Supreme Self'. Her creations are not prompted by any higher being and she resides in all her creations. She is, states Devi, the eternal and infinite consciousness engulfing earth and heaven, and 'all forms of bliss and non-bliss, knowledge and ignorance, Brahman and Non-Brahman'. The tantric aspect in Devi Upanishad, says June McDaniel,

5400-728: Is the most developed and best-known of the Hindu schools. The epistemology of the Vedantins included, depending on the sub-school, five or six methods as proper and reliable means of gaining any form of knowledge: pratyakṣa (perception), anumāṇa (inference), upamāṇa (comparison and analogy), arthāpatti (postulation, derivation from circumstances), anupalabdi (non-perception, negative/cognitive proof) and śabda (word, testimony of past or present reliable experts). All of these have been further categorised by each sub-school of Vedanta in terms of conditionality, completeness, confidence and possibility of error. The emergence of

5520-404: Is the mother of Hindu gods Ganesha and Kartikeya . Her parents are Himavan and Maināvati. According to Puranas she performed strict tapasya and achieved the position of consort of Shiva. Rita Gross states, the view of Parvati only as an ideal wife and mother is an incomplete symbolism of the power of the feminine in the mythology of India. Parvati, along with other goddesses, are involved with

5640-632: Is the oldest of the orthodox philosophical systems in Hinduism , with origins in the 1st millennium BCE. It is a rationalist school of Indian philosophy , and had a strong influence on other schools of Indian philosophies. Sāmkhya is an enumerationist philosophy whose epistemology accepted three of six pramāṇas as the only reliable means of gaining knowledge. These were pratyakṣa (perception), anumāṇa (inference) and sabda ( Āptavacana , word/testimony of reliable sources). Samkhya school espouses dualism between witness-consciousness and 'nature' (mind, perception, matter). It regards

5760-442: Is the set of Indian philosophical systems that developed in tandem with early Hindu religious traditions during the iron and classical ages of India. In Indian tradition, the word used for philosophy is Darshana ( Sanskrit : दर्शन; meaning: "viewpoint or perspective"), from the Sanskrit root 'दृश' ( drish ) meaning 'to see, to experience'. The schools of thought or Darshanas within Hindu philosophy largely equate to

5880-411: Is the usage of the terms yantra , bindu , bija , mantra , shakti and chakra . Among the major world religions, the concept of Goddess in Hinduism as the divine feminine has had the strongest presence since ancient times. Parvati is the Hindu goddess of love, beauty, purity and devotion. She is the mother goddess in Hinduism and has many attributes and aspects. Each of her aspects

6000-513: Is thereafter invincible, and revered as "preserver of Dharma , destroyer of evil". Durga's emergence and mythology is described in the Puranas , particularly the Devi Mahatmya . The text describes Kālī 's emerging out of Parvati when she becomes extremely angry. Parvati's face turns pitch dark, and suddenly Kali springs forth from Parvati's forehead. She is black, wears a garland of human heads ,

6120-424: Is to place the macrocosm within oneself", and doing so can yield temporal benefits, spiritual powers or enlightenment. A tantric text titled "Vigyan Bhairav Tantra", 'Vigyan' meaning "consciousness" is a conversation between Shiva and Parvati rendered in 112 verses, elaborates on "wisdom and insight of pure consciousness." Devi Puja is the worship of Parvati which is observed through four forms of Devi Yantra;

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6240-497: Is worshipped as the goddess of wealth. The festivals of Diwali and Sharad Purnima (Kojagiri Purnima) are celebrated in her honor. Saraswati is the Hindu goddess of knowledge, music, arts, wisdom, and learning. She is the consort of Brahma . The earliest known mention of Saraswati as a goddess is in Rigveda . She has remained significant as a goddess from the Vedic age through modern times of Hindu traditions. Some Hindus celebrate

6360-537: The Bhagavad Gita . The Devi Gita focuses on the Goddess’s answers to Himalaya’s queries. Tarakasura , the king of demons, conquered the three worlds after receiving a boon from Lord Brahma . While the gods, who have lost their divine kingdoms to the demon Taraka, take refuge in the goddess to regain their worldly fortunes, Himalaya, the epitome of supreme devotion, seeks spiritual realization for himself. He inquires of

6480-511: The Rigveda . However, the goddesses are not discussed as frequently as gods ( devas ). Devi appears in late Vedic texts dated to be pre-Buddhist, but verses dedicated to her do not suggest that her characteristics were fully developed in the Vedic era. All gods and goddesses are distinguished in Vedic times, but in post-Vedic texts, particularly in the early medieval era literature, they are ultimately seen as aspects or manifestations of one Devi,

6600-677: The Vaiśeṣika Sūtra , opens as follows: Dharma is that from which results the accomplishment of Exaltation and of the Supreme Good. The authoritativeness of the Veda arises from its being an exposition of dharma . The Supreme Good results from knowledge, produced from a particular dharma , of the essence of the Predicables, Substance, Attribute, Action, Genus, Species and Combination, by means of their resemblances and differences. The Vaiśeṣika school

6720-564: The Kali Yuga , which is spelled similarly yet holds a different meaning. The Kali Yuga is presented as a threat to Mother India, with pictures from the nineteenth century depicting the age as a "ferocious meat-eating demon" in comparison to India's depiction of "a cow giving milk to her children". The largest annual festival associated with the goddess is Durga Puja celebrated in the month of Ashvin (September–October), where nine manifestations of Parvati ( Navadurga ) are worshipped, each on

6840-503: The Puranas and the Āgamas . Each school of Hindu philosophy has extensive epistemological literature called Pramana , as well as theories on metaphysics , axiology , and other topics. In the history of India , the six orthodox schools had emerged before the start of the Common Era , and some schools emerged possibly even before the Buddha . Some scholars have questioned whether

6960-525: The Self is held to end transmigration and lead to absolute freedom ( kaivalya ). In Indian philosophy , Yōga ( Sanskrit : योग) is, among other things, the name of one of the six āstika philosophical schools. The Yoga philosophical system aligns closely with the dualist premises of the Samkhya school. The Yoga school accepts Samkhya psychology and metaphysics, but is considered theistic because it accepts

7080-505: The Shaktism traditions of Hinduism, found particularly in eastern states of India, Durga is a popular goddess form of Adishakti . In the medieval era composed texts such as the Puranas, she emerges as a prominent goddess in the context of crisis, when evil asuras were on the ascent. The male gods were unable to contain and subdue the forces of evil. The warrior goddess, Devi, kills the asura, and

7200-554: The śruti which relates to ceremonial acts and sacrificial rites, the early parts of the Vedas), while the Vedanta school developed and emphasises jñānakāṇḍa (the portion of the Vedas that relates to knowledge of monism, the latter parts of the Vedas). The Vedānta ( Sanskrit : वेदान्त) school built upon the teachings of the Upanishads and Brahma Sutras from the first millennium BCE and

7320-426: The 3rd millennium BCE. Deva is masculine, and the related feminine equivalent is devi . Monier-Williams translates it as 'heavenly, divine, terrestrial things of high excellence, exalted, shining ones'. Etymologically, a cognate of devi is Latin dea . When capitalised, Devi maata refers to the mother goddess in Hinduism. Deva is short for devatā and devi for devika . According to Douglas Harper,

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7440-595: The Advaita position cannot coherently maintain that Brahman is non-intentional consciousness (consciousness that does not have an object), because all cognitions are necessarily about something. Dvaita refers to a theistic sub-school in Vedanta tradition of Hindu philosophy. Also called Tattvavāda and Bimbapratibimbavāda , the Dvaita sub-school was founded by the 13th-century scholar Madhvacharya . The Dvaita Vedanta school believes that God (Vishnu, Paramatman ) and

7560-455: The Devi Gita provides the mythological background for the spiritual instructions of the devotees of the Great Goddess. The Devi Gita begins with Vyasa's disciple King Janamejaya questioning the manifestation of this supreme energy. Oppressed deities She is praised in hymns. This is the first of two important hymns in the Devi Gita that depict the Goddess as one power. Behind all the goddesses,

7680-561: The Devi continues her discussion interrupted by her cosmic manifestation as the Virat of the genesis of individual souls through the power of ignorance and its karmic entanglements. The Goddess is described by the text as a "universal, cosmic energy" resident within each individual, weaving in the terminology of Samkhya school of Hindu philosophy . It is full of Advaita Vedanta ideas, emphasizing its ambiguity, misrepresenting all dualities, and treating

7800-685: The Goddess about her true nature and relation to the material world as well as the means of union with the Supreme Goddess, the ultimate goal of human existence. As the Universal Mother is anxious to satisfy the desires of all her children, she fulfills the desires of the King Himalaya. She first appears to the gods and the Himalayas in a blinding light representing the Absolute or Brahman , whose nature

7920-452: The Hindu epic Ramayana , an allegorical story with Hindu spiritual and ethical teachings. However, there are many versions of Ramayana, and her story as a goddess in Hindu mythology. Her legends also vary in southeast Asian versions of the epic Ramayana, such as in the Ramakien of Thailand where she is spelled as Sida (or Nang Sida ). In Valmiki Ramayana, Sita is repeatedly expressed as

8040-546: The Kashmir of my heart. Saraswati is also found outside India, such as in Japan, Vietnam, Bali (Indonesia) and Myanmar. Vedic literature does not have any particular goddess matching the concept of Durga. Her legends appear in the medieval era, as an angry, ferocious form of the mother goddess Mahalakshmi , who assumes the avatar of Durga . She manifests as a goddess with eight or ten arms, holding weapons and skulls of demons, and

8160-582: The Lord and the Cosmic Soul; I am myself the Cosmic Body (Virat). I am Brahma, Vishnu, and Rudra, as well as Gauri, Brahmi, and Vaishnavi. — Devi Gita 03.13 Chapter 3 describes how the Goddess enters into her creation and thereby becomes unattached to samsara . At the same time, she expresses her identity with all cosmic and mundane manifestations in a grand cosmic vision of the universe. In chapter 4,

8280-726: The Mīmāṃsā school are the Purva Mimamsa Sutras of Jaimini . The classical Mīmāṃsā school is sometimes referred to as pūrvamīmāṃsā or Karmamīmāṃsā in reference to the first part of the Vedas. The Mīmāṃsā school has several sub-schools defined by epistemology. The Prābhākara subschool of Mīmāṃsā accepted five means to gaining knowledge as epistimetically reliable: pratyakṣa (perception), anumāṇa (inference), upamāṇa (comparison and analogy), arthāpatti (postulation, derivation from circumstances), and śabda (word, testimony of past or present reliable experts). The Kumārila Bhaṭṭa sub-school of Mīmāṃsā added

8400-423: The Nyāya school is closer to the Vaiśeṣika school than the others. It holds that human suffering results from mistakes/defects produced by activity under wrong knowledge (notions and ignorance). Moksha (liberation), it states, is gained through right knowledge. This premise led Nyāya to concern itself with epistemology, that is, the reliable means to gain correct knowledge and to remove wrong notions. False knowledge

8520-790: The Para Bhakti that I am now describing to you. He who hears always My Glories and recites My Name and Whose mind dwells always, like the incessant flow of oil, in Me who is the receptacle of all auspicious qualities and Gunas. But he has not the least trace of any desire to get the fruits of his Karma; yea he does not want Samipya, Sarsti, Sayujya, and Salokya and other forms of liberations! He becomes filled with devotion for Me alone worships Me only; knows nothing higher than to serve Me and he does not want final liberation even. There are several separate translations of Devi Gita. Devi Traditional Devī ( / ˈ d eɪ v i / ; Sanskrit : देवी )

8640-484: The Samkhya school theory that jñāna (knowledge) is a sufficient means to moksha. It suggests that systematic techniques/practice (personal experimentation) combined with Samkhya's approach to knowledge is the path to moksha. Yoga shares several central ideas with Advaita Vedanta, with the difference that Yoga is a form of experimental mysticism while Advaita Vedanta is a form of monistic personalism. Like Advaita Vedanta,

8760-849: The Supreme Power. Devi is the supreme being in the Shakta tradition of Hinduism; in the Smarta tradition, she is one of the five primary forms of Brahman that is revered. In other Hindu traditions, Devi embodies the active energy and power of Deva, and they always appear together complementing each other. Examples of this are Parvati with Shiva in Shaivism , Saraswati with Brahma in Brahmanism and Lakshmi with Vishnu , Sita with Rama and Radha with Krishna in Vaishnavism . Devi-inspired philosophy

8880-528: The Vedanta school represented a period in which a more knowledge-centered understanding began to emerge, focusing on jnana (knowledge) driven aspects of the Vedic religion and the Upanishads. These included metaphysical concepts such as ātman and Brahman , and an emphasis on meditation, self-discipline, self-knowledge and abstract spirituality, rather than ritualism. The Upanishads were variously interpreted by ancient- and medieval-era Vedanta scholars. Consequently,

9000-404: The Vedanta separated into many sub-schools, ranging from theistic dualism to non-theistic monism, each interpreting the texts in its own way and producing its own series of sub-commentaries. Advaita literally means "not two, sole, unity". It is a sub-school of Vedanta, and asserts spiritual and universal non-dualism. Its metaphysics is a form of absolute monism , that is all ultimate reality

9120-766: The Yoga school discusses this concept more generically as "seer, experiencer" and "seen, experienced" than the Samkhya school. A key text of the Yoga school is the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali . Patanjali may have been, as Max Müller explains, "the author or representative of the Yoga-philosophy without being necessarily the author of the Sutras." Hindu philosophy recognises many types of Yoga, such as rāja yoga , jñāna yoga , karma yoga , bhakti yoga , tantra yoga, mantra yoga, laya yoga , and hatha yoga . The Yoga school builds on

9240-480: The Yoga school of Hindu philosophy holds that liberation/freedom in this life is achievable, and that this occurs when an individual fully understands and realises the equivalence of Atman (Self) and Brahman. The Vaiśeṣika ( Sanskrit : वैशेसिक) philosophy is a naturalist school. It is a form of atomism in natural philosophy. It postulates that all objects in the physical universe are reducible to paramāṇu ( atoms ), and that one's experiences are derived from

9360-455: The assemblage of perceivable objects is for use (by man); Since the converse of that which has the three qualities with other properties must exist (in man); Since there must be superintendence (within man); Since there must be some entity that enjoys (within man); Since there is a tendency to abstraction (in man), therefore soul is. – Verse 17 The soteriology in Samkhya aims at the realisation of Puruṣa as distinct from Prakriti; this knowledge of

9480-471: The authority of the Vedas are nāstika philosophies, of which four nāstika (heterodox) schools are prominent: Besides the major orthodox and non-orthodox schools, there have existed syncretic sub-schools that have combined ideas and introduced new ones of their own. The medieval scholar Madhavacharya , identified by some as Vidyaranya , in his book ' Sarva-Darsana-Sangraha ', includes 16 philosophical systems current as of 14th century. Along with some of

9600-489: The character of someone or something, of nature and determines the progress of life. Samkhya theorises a pluralism of Selfs ( Jeevatmas ) who possess consciousness. Samkhya has historically been theistic or non-theistic, and there has been debate about its specific view on God. The Samkhya karika , one of the key texts of this school of Hindu philosophy, opens by stating its goal to be "three kinds of human suffering" and means to prevent them. The text then presents

9720-408: The classical Samkhya school, and the other a reflective model emphasizing the transcendence and immutability of supreme reality, a model particularly favored by Advaita. According to the evolutionary model presented in the text, as Mackenzie Brown points out, the Goddess brings forth from within herself the creative, projective power known as Maya, the efficient and material cause of the universe. I am

9840-526: The concept of personal god ( Ishvara , unlike Samkhya. The epistemology of the Yoga school, like the Sāmkhya school, relies on three of six prāmaṇas as the means of gaining reliable knowledge: pratyakṣa (perception), anumāṇa (inference) and śabda ( āptavacana , word/testimony of reliable sources). The universe is conceptualised as a duality in Yoga school: puruṣa (witness-consciousness) and prakṛti (mind, perception, matter); however,

9960-496: The continuation of humanity. Radha means "prosperity, success, and lightning." She is the female counterpart and consort of Krishna . She is also considered as the internal potency of Krishna. In Puranic literature such as the Brahma Vaivarta Purana , she is known as the Goddess of love and is also described as the " Prakriti " along with goddess Lakshmi, Parvati, Saraswati and Gayatri. She has figured prominently in

10080-503: The different schools. The schools vary on how many of these six are valid paths of knowledge. For example, the Cārvāka nāstika philosophy holds that only one (perception) is an epistemically reliable means of knowledge, the Samkhya school holds that three are (perception, inference and testimony), while the Mīmāṃsā and Advaita schools hold that all six are epistemically useful and reliable means to knowledge. Sāmkhya ( Sanskrit : सांख्य)

10200-468: The dualism of Dvaita was permanent. Dvaita sub-school disagrees with the Vishishtadvaita claim that Brahman is linked with the individual self and the world in the way that a soul is with its body. Madhvacharya argues that Brahman cannot be the material cause of the world. Salvation , in Dvaita, is achievable only through the grace of God Vishnu. Dvaitādvaita was proposed by Nimbarkacharya ,

10320-413: The earth and heaven, and all created entities with my greatness and dwell in them as eternal and infinite consciousness. The Vedas name numerous cosmic goddesses such as Prithvi (earth), Aditi (cosmic moral order), Vāc (sound), Nirṛti (destruction), Ratri (night) and Aranyani (forest); bounty goddesses such as Dinsana, Raka, Puramdhi, Parendi, Bharati and Mahi are among others are mentioned in

10440-531: The energy of all, and identifies her with Brahman. The first part of the hymn is based on the "Devi Stuti" contained in the Devi Upanishad . After the hymn, the gods called for help against the Taraka. In view of the exemplary and steadfast devotion of the king Himalaya, the Devi Bhuvaneshwari assures them of help by promising to send the energy known as Gauri as a special act of grace to the king Himalaya. Unlike

10560-556: The epistemology and metaphysics of dharma . To them, dharma meant rituals and duties, not devas (gods), because devas existed only in name. The Mīmāṃsākas held that the Vedas are "eternal authorless infallible", that Vedic vidhi (injunctions) and mantras in rituals are prescriptive karya (actions), and that the rituals are of primary importance and merit. They considered the Upanishads and other texts related to self-knowledge and spirituality to be of secondary importance,

10680-490: The etymological root dev- means "a shining one", from * div -, "to shine", it is an Indo-European cognate of the Greek dios , Gothic divine and Latin deus (Old Latin deivos ); see also *Dyēus . A synonym for the word Devi in the Vedas is Bhagavati. Bhagavatī (Devanagari: भगवती, IAST: Bhagavatī), is an Indian epithet of Sanskrit origin, used as an honorific title for goddesses in Hinduism and Buddhism. In Hinduism, it

10800-412: The festival of Vasant Panchami (the fifth day of spring) in her honor, and mark the day by helping young children learn how to write alphabets on that day. She is also part of Tridevi which consists of Saraswati, Parvati (goddess of power, fertility, love, beauty), and Lakshmi (goddess of material wealth, prosperity, and fortune). Saraswati is often depicted dressed in pure white, often seated on

10920-422: The first is Tara that exists in the realm of the fourth chakra representing the spiritual heart; Saraswati emanates in the first chakra; Lakshmi forms the second chakra; and Parvati is at the heart of the third chakra and completes the chakra. Worship through this Yantra leads to the realization of "cosmic energy" within oneself. Hindu philosophy Traditional Hindu philosophy or Vedic philosophy

11040-513: The four goals of human life considered important to the Hindu way of life – dharma , kama , artha , and moksha . She is the mother goddess in Hinduism. She is also part of Tridevi which consists of Lakshmi, Parvati (goddess of power, love, beauty), and Saraswati (goddess of music, wisdom, and learning). In the ancient scriptures of India, all women are declared to be embodiments of Lakshmi. The marriage and relationship between Lakshmi and Vishnu as wife and husband, states Patricia Monaghan,

11160-436: The gods, Himalaya is primarily motivated by a desire for spiritual realization, and so he makes a special request of his own. He prays to the Devi to explain the true nature of the Goddess and to explain the various paths of yoga discipline, devotion and knowledge. Second chapter briefly outlines the first cosmological process using two overlapping models of creation, one an evolutionary unfolding of primordial elements based on

11280-578: The individual Selfs (Atman) ( jīvātman ) exist as independent realities, and these are distinct. Dvaita Vedanta is a dualistic interpretation of the Vedas ; it espouses dualism by theorising the existence of two separate realities. The first and the only independent reality, states the Dvaita school, is that of Vishnu or Brahman. Vishnu is the Paramatman , in a manner similar to monotheistic God in other major religions. The distinguishing factor of Dvaita philosophy, as opposed to monistic Advaita Vedanta ,

11400-969: The interconnected oneness of the soul of all beings with Brahman as liberating knowledge. The Bhakti concept of the Devi Gita portion of this Purana is influenced by the Bhagavad Gita, and shares similarities with the Vaishnava concepts of devotion to Krishna found in the Bhagavata Purana . A special type of devotion called para bhakti is mentioned here as the highest way of realizing the supreme goddess. SDB 07.37.11:12 original Sanskrit: अधना पराभकति त परोचयमाना निबोध म । मदगणशरवण नितय मम नापानकीरतनम ॥ कलयाणगणरतनानामाकराया मयि सथिरम । चतसो वरतन चव तलधारासम सदा ॥ SDB 07.37.13:14 original Sanskrit: हतसत ततर को वापि न कदाचिदधबदपि । सामीपयसाषटिसायजयसालोकयाना न चषणा ॥ मतसवातोऽधिक किचिननव जानाति करहिचित । सवयसवकताभावातततर मोकष न वाछति ॥ Now hear attentively about

11520-415: The interplay of substance (a function of atoms, their number and their spatial arrangements), quality, activity, commonness, particularity and inherence. Knowledge and liberation are achievable by complete understanding of the world of experience, according to Vaiśeṣika school. The Vaiśeṣika darśana is credited to Kaṇāda Kaśyapa from the second half of the first millennium BCE. The foundational text,

11640-421: The major Vedantic scriptures and is celebrated as one of the major Hindu philosophers from whose doctrines the main currents of modern Indian thought are derived. According to this school of Vedanta, all reality is Brahman, and there exists nothing whatsoever which is not Brahman . Its metaphysics includes the concept of māyā and ātman. Māyā connotes "that which exists, but is constantly changing and thus

11760-516: The major orthodox and non-orthodox schools and sub-schools, it includes the following sub-schools: The above sub-schools introduced their own ideas while adopting concepts from orthodox schools of Hindu philosophy such as realism of the Nyāya, naturalism of Vaiśeṣika, monism and knowledge of Self (Atman) as essential to liberation of Advaita, self-discipline of Yoga, asceticism and elements of theistic ideas. Some sub-schools share Tantric ideas with those found in some Buddhist traditions. Epistemology

11880-505: The manifestation of Lakshmi, as the one who blesses abundance in agriculture, food, and wealth. She is referred to golden goddess, wherein after Rama (Vishnu) is bereaved of her, he refuses to marry again, insists that he is married solely and forever to her, and uses a golden image of Sita as a substitute in the performance of his duties as a king. Sita, in many Hindu mythology, is the Devi associated with agriculture, fertility, food and wealth for

12000-442: The modern era. The medieval era Puranas witness a major expansion in mythology and literature associated with Devi, with texts such as the Devi Mahatmya , wherein she manifests as the ultimate truth and supreme power. She has inspired the Shaktism tradition of Hinduism. Further, Devi is viewed as central in the Hindu traditions of Shaktism and Shaivism . Devi and deva are Sanskrit terms found in Vedic literature around

12120-631: The ninth and fourteenth centuries the Goddess is addressed in the most general and universal of terms, as Mahadevi, and represents all goddesses as different manifestations of her. The Lalita Sahasranama (Thousand names of Lalita ( Parvati ) states that Mahadevi is known by different synonyms such as Jagatikanda (anchors the world), Vishvadhika (one who surpasses the universe), Nirupama (one who has no match), Parameshwari (dominant governor), Vyapini (encompasses everything), Aprameya (immeasurable), Anekakotibrahmadajanani (creator of many universes), Vishvagarbha (she whose Garba or womb subsumes

12240-469: The objects of right knowledge. The Nyāya school uses a three-fold procedure: enumeration, definition, and examination. This procedure of enumeration, definition, and examination is recurrent in Navya-Nyāya texts like The Manual of Reason ( Tarka-Sangraha ). The Mīmāṃsā ( Sanskrit : मीमांसा) school emphasises religious hermeneutics and exegesis . It is a form of philosophical realism . Key texts of

12360-452: The orthodox and heterodox schools classification is sufficient or accurate, given the diversity and evolution of views within each major school of Indian philosophy, with some sub-schools combining heterodox and orthodox views. Since ancient times, Indian philosophy has been categorised into āstika and nāstika schools of thought. The orthodox schools of Indian philosophy have been called ṣaḍdarśana ('six systems'). This schema

12480-426: The other, represented as Ardhanarishvara . Parvati is found extensively in ancient Indian literature, and her statues and iconography grace ancient and medieval era Hindu temples all over South Asia and Southeast Asia . Lakshmi , also called Sri , is the Hindu goddess of wealth, fortune, and prosperity (both material and spiritual). She is the consort and active energy of Vishnu . Her four hands represent

12600-405: The poems of Vidyapati (1352–1448) as a cosmic queen and later became inspiration behind many forms of art, literature, music and dance. She is also seen as the incarnation of Lakshmi . Some traditions worship Radha as the lover consort of Krishna while many other traditions worship Radha as the married consort of Lord Krishna. Radha was made famous through Jayadeva 's Gitagovinda poem which

12720-605: The relationship and differences within āstika philosophies and with the nāstika philosophies, starting with the writings of Indologists and Orientalists of the 18th and 19th centuries, based on limited availability of Indian literature and medieval doxographies . The various sibling traditions included in Indian philosophies are diverse and are united by: shared history and concepts, textual resources, ontological and soteriological focus, and cosmology. Some heterodox ( nāstika ) traditions such as Charvaka are often considered as distinct schools within Hindu philosophy because

12840-432: The scope and value of language as a tool to also describe , develop and derive . Mīmāṃsākas considered orderly, law-driven, procedural life as the central purpose and noblest necessity of dharma and society, and divine (theistic) sustenance means to that end. The Mimamsa school was influential and foundational to the Vedanta school, with the difference that Mīmāṃsā developed and emphasises karmakāṇḍa (the portion of

12960-442: The sense of subject-object perception was illusory and a sign of ignorance. However, the individual's sense of self was not a complete illusion since it was derived from the universal beingness that is Brahman. Ramanuja saw Vishnu as a personification of Brahman. The Viśiṣṭādvaita sub-school also disagrees with the Advaita claim that misconception ( avidyā ) is indescribable as either real or unreal ( anirvacanīya ). It sees this as

13080-464: The six ancient orthodox schools: the āstika (Sanskrit : आस्तिक) schools, defined by their acceptance of the Vedas , the oldest collection of Sanskrit texts , as an authoritative source of knowledge. Of these six, Samkhya (सांख्य) is the earliest school of dualism ; Yoga (योग) combines the metaphysics of Samkhya with meditation and breath techniques; Nyaya (न्याय) is a school of logic emphasising direct realism ; Vaisheshika (वैषेशिक)

13200-475: The sixteenth century." The Devi Gita is a text that consists of the last ten chapters of the seventh Canto of the Devi Bhagavata Purana . It has 507 verses and often circulates as its own text. It presents a magnificent vision of a universe created, pervaded and protected by an all-powerful, all-knowing and all-compassionate Divine Feminine. The Devi Gita frequently explains Shakta ideas by quoting from

13320-603: The sixth century when Devi Mahatmya came into practice the name Devi (goddess) or Mahadevi (Great Goddess) came into prominence to represent one female goddess to encompass the discrete goddesses like Parvati and so forth. In the Hindu mythology, Devi and Deva are usually paired, complement and go together, typically shown as equal but sometimes the Devi is shown smaller or in the subordinate role. Some goddesses, however, play an independent role in Hindu pantheon, and are revered as Supreme without any male god(s) present or with males in subordinate position. Mahadevi, as mother goddess,

13440-631: The supreme goddess Mahadevi are collectively called the Tridevi .These Tridevi are said to be the Shakti of all the Gods or Deva . Like Mahasaraswati is the Shakti of Brahma; Lakshmi is the Shakti of Vishnu; and Mahakali is Shakti of Shiva. Sita, an incarnation of Lakshmi, is married to Rama , an avatar of Vishnu. She is shakti or prakriti of Rama as told in the Ram Raksha Stotram . In Sita Upanishad ,

13560-613: The universe as consisting of two realities: Puruṣa (witness-consciousness) and prakriti ('nature'). Jiva (a living being) is that state in which puruṣa is bonded to prakriti in some form. This fusion, state the Samkhya scholars, led to the emergence of buddhi (awareness, intellect) and ahankara (individualised ego consciousness, "I-maker"). The universe is described by this school as one created by Purusa-Prakriti entities infused with various permutations and combinations of variously enumerated elements, senses, feelings, activity and mind. Samkhya philosophy includes

13680-767: The universe), Sarvadhara (helps all), Sarvaga (being everywhere at the same time, Sarvalokesi (governs all worlds) and Vishavdaharini one who functions for the whole universe). The Mahadevi goddess has many aspects to her personality. She focuses on that side of her that suits her objectives, but unlike male Hindu deities, her powers and knowledge work in concert in a multifunctional manner. The ten aspects of her, also called Mahavidyas (or great forms of her knowledge) are forms of Parvati and they are: Kali , Tara , Tripura Sundari , Bhairavi , Bhuvanesvari , Chhinnamasta , Dhumavati , Bagalamukhi , Matangi and Kamala . Tantric literature such as Soundarya Lahari meaning "Flood of Beauty", credited to Adi Shankaracharya

13800-420: The various manuscript versions of Devi Bhagavata Purana with the embedded Devi Gita therein. Devi Bhagavata Purana gives prime position to Mahadevi as the mother of all-encompassing the three worlds and gives her the position of being all of universe – the material and the spiritual. In the Upanishadic text Devi Upanishad , a Sakta Upanishad and an important Tantric text probably composed sometime between

13920-576: The word Hindu is an exonym historically used as a geographical and cultural identifier for people living in the Indian subcontinent . Hindu philosophy also includes several sub-schools of theistic philosophies that integrate ideas from two or more of the six orthodox philosophies. Examples of such schools include: Pāśupata Śaiva , Śaiva siddhānta , Pratyabhijña , Raseśvara and Vaiṣṇava . Some sub-schools share Tantric ideas with those found in some Buddhist traditions, which are nevertheless found in

14040-539: Was also the guru of the Vallabhā sampradāya ("tradition of Vallabh") or Puṣṭimārga , a Vaishnava tradition focused on the worship of Krishna. Vallabhacharya enunciates that Brahman has created the world without connection with any external agency such as Māyā (which itself is His power) and manifests Himself through the world. That is why Shuddhadvaita is known as "Unmodified transformation" or "Avikṛta Pariṇāmavāda". Brahman or Ishvara desired to become many, and he became

14160-481: Was created between the 12th and 16th centuries by Vedantins . It was then adopted by the early Western Indologists , and pervades modern understandings of Indian philosophy. There are six āstika (orthodox) schools of thought. Each is called a darśana , and each darśana accepts the Vedas as authority. Each āstika darśana also accepts the premise that Atman (eternal Self) exists. The āstika schools of philosophy are: Schools that do not accept

14280-477: Was the foremost proponent of the philosophy of Viśiṣṭādvaita or qualified non-dualism. Viśiṣṭādvaita advocated the concept of a Supreme Being with essential qualities or attributes. Viśiṣṭādvaitins argued against the Advaitin conception of Brahman as an impersonal empty oneness. They saw Brahman as an eternal oneness, but also as the source of all creation, which was omnipresent and actively involved in existence. To them

14400-457: Was written in 12th century. It is a lyrical drama, a "mystical erotic poem" which describes the love of Krishna and Radha . Some other texts which mentioned Radha are – Brahma Vaivarta Purana , Padma Purana , Skanda Purana , Devi Bhagvata Purana , Matsya Purana , Narada Pancharatra , Brahma Samhita , Shiva Purana and Garga Samhita . Radha was born in Barsana and every year, her birthday

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